چگونه پیشینه پژوهشی بنویسیم؟ - ابوالفضل بختیاری
چگونه پیشینه پژوهشی بنویسیم؟
HOW TO WRITE LITERATURE REVIEW PAPERS
Running head: HOW TO WRITE LITERATURE REVIEW PAPERS
How To Write Literature Review Papers in Counselor Education
Martin H. Ritchie
Abstract
General requirements for preparing a literature review term paper for the Department of Counseling and Mental Health Services are reviewed. Formatting according to the American Psychological Association (APA) Publication Manual is reviewed. Common mistakes and errors are exposed along with correct formatting. General suggestions for improving the paper are included.
General Formatting Considerations
Page Setup
Use one inch margins for top, bottom, left, and right. Left justify the margins. Do not right or center justify the margins. Set spacing to double space and leave it. Everything, including quotations and reference list is double-spaced. Do not skip extra lines between subheadings or sections of the paper. Use Times or Times New Roman font and font size 12 throughout the document.
Include a Header that includes an abbreviated Running Head and page number on each page, starting with the Cover Page. The Header should be in the same font and size as the body of the paper and should be flush right one-half inch from the top of the page. There should be no other headers or footers in the paper.
Paper Setup
Paper begins with a Cover Page. Abstract appears on separate page. The abstract is a one paragraph, brief summary of the topic and findings of the paper.
Body of the paper begins on next page. Title goes at the top of this page. Title does not appear on other pages.
References are listed alphabetically (not numbered) on a separate page at the end of the body of the paper. Every reference cited in the body of the paper must appear in the reference list. Nothing should appear in the reference list that is not cited in the body of the paper. Make sure that the names, spelling, and dates, are the same in the citations and in the reference list.
Subheadings. Use subheadings to organize the paper around topics. You may want to outline your paper before you begin writing it and use the outline to create subheadings. Subheadings should be brief, yet describe what you are discussing in the section. One-word subheadings may not be sufficient. Select proper levels of headings by consulting the latest edition of the Publication Manual (APA, 2001). Typically, you will have no more than three different levels as illustrated on this page (i.e., General Formatting Considerations = Level 1, Paper Setup = Level 3, Subheadings = Level 4).
Lists. If you must include lists either use the a); b); c); format or the
1.
2.
3. format.
Citations. When you cite a reference to support a statement, include the author and the publication date (Ritchie & Salyers, 2005). According to Ritchie and Salyers (2005), if you cite the reference outside of parentheses, use “and” instead of “&” and only enclose the date in parentheses. According to Ritchie, Salyers, and Dupuy (2005), if there are three or more authors, list them all the first time. Thereafter, you may use et al. and the date (Ritchie, et al., 2005). If there are 6 or more authors you may use et al. instead of listing all of them the first time. Note that the correct punctuation for et al. includes a period after al. If you cite more than one reference they appear in the same order they appear in the reference list (Cox, 2004; Laux, 2001; Piazza, 1993).
Quotations. “If you make a direct quote you must include the page number with the citation” (Laux, 2005, p. 5). Note the quotation marks come before the citation and the period follows the citation.
Display quotations of 40 or more words in a double-spaced block of typewritten lines with no quotation marks. Do not single-space. Indent five to seven spaces of ½ in. from the left margin without the usual opening paragraph indent. If the quotation is more than one paragraph, indent the first line of the second and additional paragraphs five to seven spaces or ½ in. from the new margin. (APA, 2001, p. 292)
Note that in block quotes the period comes before the citation which does not end in a period. Do not use too many direct quotations. It is alright to paraphrase others so long as you cite them.
Common Errors in Writing APA-Style Papers
Do not use apostrophes in dates. For example, in the 1970s disco was queen (not 1970’s).
Write out him or her, himself or herself. Do not write him/her or himself/herself. It sometimes helps to use plurals to avoid having to repeat him or her. For example, change “the counselor forms a relationship with him or her in order to earn his or her trust,” to “counselors form relationships with clients in order to earn their trust.” Themselves is not a word.
Do not mix singular and plural subjects in a sentence. For instance, this is incorrect: Each therapist (singular) uses their (plural) own technique. Should read, “Each therapist uses his or her own technique,” or better yet, “Therapists use their own techniques.”
Avoid amphropomorphisms. For example, do not say, this paper will discuss the various techniques. The paper can not talk or discuss.
Do not use contractions outside of parentheses. Also note that “it’s” means “it is”, it is not a possessive form of “it” (Cousin It, 1979).
If you use an abbreviation or acronym, you must spell it out the first time. The American Counseling Association (ACA) is the parent organization for counselors. ACA was formed in 1952.
Additional Tips to Improve Your Paper
First drafts of papers do not cut it. Few people are so gifted as to be able to write good papers on the first try. Plan on going back and rewriting and making at least two revisions before handing in the paper. Have someone else read the paper to make sure that it makes sense and flows logically from one topic to the next.
Write succinctly. Less is more. Many sentences can be reduced to be less wordy, and more concise. Avoid run-on sentences that have too many clauses and thoughts. Break long sentences down into several succinct statements.
Support your statements and contentions with citations. If it is common knowledge, or your opinion, it does not need a citation. If you are using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) for support, use the latest edition.
The purpose of a literature review is to review the literature, not to write a persuasive essay only citing sources that support your view. Find as many articles as you can and represent them fairly in your review. You can speculate and give your opinion in the conclusions section.
Cox, J. (2003). How to reference a book.
Fasko, S., & Luellen, W. (2004). How to reference a chapter in a book. In P.Dupuy & M. Ritchie (Eds.). Book about everything (pp. 30-45).
Piazza, N., Dupuy, P., & Ritchie, M. (2001). Do not capitalize title of book or journal article. Journal of APA Style, 7, 201-211.
Piazza, N., Ritchie, Fasko, S. (2001). If there are multiple references with same first author and year you arrange alphabetically by second author. Journal of APA Style, 7, 212-217.
References